Dr Lindsey Cameron

Lecturer in Psychology

Research
Selected Publications
Grants
Research Reports
Other Academic Activities
Contact

Research interests

My area of research is social developmental psychology. I am interested in how children become ‘social beings’: how do children develop the social knowledge and skills that we have as adults take foregranted? Specifically, I am interested in how inter-group processes develop throughout childhood. My research interests are as follows:

The development of inter-group attitudes in children and the role of factors such as awareness of norms, self-presentation, cognitive development and in-group identification in determining these attitudes.
The development of interventions to change children’s inter-group attitudes.
Inter-group contact and extended inter-group contact
The development of ethnic and national identity in children and adolescents.
Acculturation in childhood.
The experience of prejudice and discrimination, and its consequences for social development.

Currently I am developing and evaluating prejudice-reduction interventions for use in Primary Schools. I am also working with one of my partners, WEDG, to evaluate the use of persona dolls. This is a technique that is used to teach pre-school children about other cultures. Despite it’s increasing popularity, it’s effect on children has never before been evaluated. I am currently conducting a two year study evaluating the use of the dolls in a number of settings in Kent. For this project, we employ student research assistants so do please get in touch if you are interested in getting involved in this project.

Key publications

JN Cameron, L., Rutland, A., Hossain, R. & Petley, R. (2011). When and why does extended contact work? The role of high quality direct contact and group norms in the development of positive ethnic intergroup attitudes amongst children. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 14, 193-207.

JN Rutland, A., Cameron, L., Nigbur, D., Brown, R., Hossain, R., Landau, A., Le Touze, D & Watters, C. (in press). When 'groups' come into play: A longitudinal study of group identification and subjective peer acceptance among ethnic minority British children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology.

JN Cameron, L., Rutland, A., Turner, R.N., Blake, B., Holman-Nicolas, R., Powell, C. (in press). Changing attitudes with a little imagination: Imagined contact effects on young children's implicit attitudes. Anale de Psicologia.

BC Cameron, L. & Turner, R. N. (2010). The applications of diversity-based interventions to reduce prejudice. In R.J. Crisp. (Ed.), The Psychology of Social and Cultural Diversity. (pp.322-352). The applications of diversity-based interventions to reduce prejudice.Malden, MA: The applications of diversity-based interventions to reduce prejudice. Blackwell.

Selected Publications

Also view these in the Kent Academic Repository

Articles

Rutland, A. and Cameron, L. and Jugert, Philipp et al. (2012) Group identity and peer relations: A longitudinal study of group identity, perceived peer acceptance and friendships amongst ethnic minority English children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology. ISSN 0261-510X. (in press)

Abstract

This research examined whether peer relationships amongst ethnic minority status children reflect the social groups to which children belong and the degree to which they identify with these groups. A longitudinal study was conducted to investigate the influence of group identities (i.e. ethnic and national) on childrens perceived peer acceptance and preference for same-ethnic friendships. Measures of ethnic and English identification, perceived peer acceptance and friendship choice were administered to 207 south-Asian English children, aged between 5-11 years, at two time points six months apart. In line with predictions, longitudinal analysis showed that bicultural identification (i.e. higher ethnic and English identity) was related to higher perceived peer acceptance and less preference for same-ethnic friendships. Importantly, as hypothesized, this finding was limited to the older children with more advanced social-cognitive abilities. The results suggest that older children who adopted a bicultural identity were able to strategically flag their multiple group identities, within their multicultural peer groups, to obtain acceptance amongst the maximum number of peers and show less preference for same-ethnic friendships. This study extends previous peer relations research, which have typically focused on individual social deficits or classroom norms, by showing group identities influence peer relationships amongst ethnic minority status children.

pdf

Cameron, L. and Rutland, A. and Hossian, R. et al. (2011) When and why does extended contact work? The role of high quality direct contact and group norms in the development of positive ethnic intergroup attitudes amongst children. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 14 (2). pp. 193-206. ISSN 1368-4302.

Abstract

This research examines quasi-experimentally for the first time whether direct contact moderates the extended contact effect amongst children, and whether the extended contact effect is mediated by either in-group or out-group norms about cross-ethnic friendships. We tested two forms of extended contact (Dual identity and Common in-group identity) among ethnic majority children aged 611 years (whiteEnglish, n = 153) with differing levels of high quality (i.e., cross-ethnic friendships) or low quality (i.e., acquaintances) direct contact with the IndianEnglish out-group. As expected, the extended contact effect was demonstrated only amongst children who reported less high quality direct contact. Furthermore, we found the effect of extended contact was mediated by out-group norms. We also found evidence of moderated mediation, with the indirect effect of extended contact through in-group norms being significantly stronger amongst older children. The implications for extended contact theory and the future development of prejudice-reduction interventions amongst children are discussed.

Cameron, L. and Rutland, A. and Turner, Rhiannon et al. (2011) Changing attitudes with a little imagination: Imagined contact effects on young childrens intergroup bias. Anale de Psychologia, 27 (3). pp. 708-717. ISSN 0212-9728.

Abstract

The current research tested a recent development in social psychology, namely imagined contact, among young children (n = 123, 5 to 10 years). Children imagined interacting with a physically disabled child, or did not take part in this activity (the control group). Compared with the control group, children who engaged in imagined contact subsequently showed reduced inter-group bias in their general attitude and ratings of warmth and competence. Imagined contact also led to more positive intended friendship behavior towards the disabled, but only among 5 6 year olds. This provides partial support for our hypothesis that younger children, perhaps as a result of their lack of out-group experience, are more likely to benefit from imagined contact. Implications for the development of attitudes towards the disabled, imagined contact theory and the development of classroom-based prejudice-reduction techniques based on imagined contact are discussed.

pdf

Nigbur, C. and Brown, R. and Cameron, L. et al. (2008) Acculturation, well-being and classroom behaviour among white British and British Asian primary-school children in the south-east of England: Validating a child-friendly measure of acculturation attitudes. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 32 (6). pp. 493-504. ISSN 0147-1767.

Abstract

Using a sample of white British and British Asian primary-school children (N = 386, aged 5-11 years), we measured acculturation attitudes (own and perceived outgroup), correlated constructs (ingroup and outgroup affect and identification) and relevant outcomes (self-esteem, classroom demeanour) in a structured interview to validate a customised, child-friendly measure of acculturation attitudes based on Berry's framework. Scale items measuring desire for culture maintenance and intergroup contact loaded onto the predicted factors, were internally reliable and showed concurrent validity with affect and identification. The predictive utility of measures was demonstrated in associations between children's acculturation attitudes (or perceived discrepancies with those of the outgroup) and outcomes such as self-esteem and teacher ratings of emotional symptoms.

Abrams, D. and Rutland, A. and Cameron, L. et al. (2007) Older but wilier: in-group accountability and the development of subjective group dynamics. Developmental Psychology, 43 (1). pp. 134-148. ISSN 0012-1649.

Abstract

To test social and cognitive variables that may affect the development of subjective group dynamics, the authors had 224 children between the ages of 5 and 12 years evaluate an in-group and an out-group and normative and deviant in-group members under conditions of high or low accountability to in-group peers. In-group bias and relative favorability to normative versus deviant in-group members (differential evaluation) increased when children were accountable to peers and as a function of perceptions of peer group acceptance of these members (differential inclusion). These effects were significantly larger among older children. Multiple classification ability was unrelated to judgments of group members. This study shows that the development of subjective group dynamics involves an increase in sensitivity to the normative aspects of the intergroup context.

Cameron, L. and Rutland, A. and Brown, R. (2007) Promoting children's positive intergroup attitudes towards stigmatized groups: Extended contact and multiple classification skills training. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31 (5). pp. 454-466. ISSN 0165-0254.

Abstract

Two studies were conducted to evaluate interventions, based upon the extended contact hypothesis and multiple classification skills training, which aimed to promote children's positive intergroup attitudes towards two stigmatized groups. Study I tested whether extended contact and multiple classification skills training changed out-group attitudes towards the disabled among 6-9 year-old children. Out-group attitudes were significantly more positive only in the extended contact condition compared to the control. Study 2 involved four conditions: control, extended contact, modified multiple classification skills training and a combination of both interventions. Again, only the 6-11 year-old children who experienced the extended contact interventions (extended contact and combined) showed significantly more positive attitudes towards the refugee out-group compared to the control. The implications of these findings for the development of prejudice-reduction strategies in children will be discussed.

pdf

Rutland, A. and Brown, R. and Cameron, L. et al. (2007) Development of the positive-negative asymmetry effect: In-group exclusion norm as a mediator of childrens evaluations on negative attributes. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37 (1). pp. 171-190. ISSN 0046-2772.

Abstract

Two studies were conducted that go beyond previous research by examining when and why children might show intergroup bias in the attribution of positive, but not negative traits (PNAE: the positive-negative asymmetry effect, Mummendey & Otten, 1998). In Study 1 (n = 107) children completed a mixed trait attribution task in a dichotomous group context. As predicted there was a developmental trend between 7 and 12 years of age in the PNAE. The seven year olds were the only age group not to show the effect. Study 1 also found a quadratic developmental trend in childrens national intergroup bias. Study 2 (n = 62) replicated the developmental path of the PNAE found in Study 1 using a wider age range of 6 to 16 years. This study used a mixed list of traits which werent only antonyms and a procedure that made the positive and negative trait dimensions explicitly independent. Significantly, Study 2 found ingroup exclusion norm partially mediated the development of the PNAE. These findings support an account of the positive-negative asymmetry effect based upon normative processes.

pdf

Rutland, A. and Abrams, D. and Cameron, L. (2007) Childrens attitudes towards nonconformists: Intergroup relations and social exclusion in middle childhood. International Journal on School Disaffection, 4 (2). pp. 45-52. ISSN 1478-8497.

Abstract

Social exclusion is a serious social problem. Not "fitting in" at school may be an experience that can scar children psychologically for life. This is unsurprising since being part of the "in crowd" (i.e. accepted in-group members) is extremely important to children and adolescents. Being rejected by one's peers can cause an increase in antisocial behaviour, deviance, aggression, lowered intellectual performance, self-defeating behaviour and a series of other maladaptive responses. Thus, an important social task that children face is to work out when their own and others' behaviour contravenes social norms, and to decide how to respond when such norms are contravened. Namely, they need to form attitudes towards nonconformity. Societal and interpersonal responses to deviance may focus primarily on the "problem" child and his or her personal or family relationships. However, the authors argue that such focus may miss a significant dimension, namely that when and how a behaviour is defined as "deviant" is also part of a wider peer group process that defines and defends group norms and boundaries. In this paper, the authors consider how the intergroup context (i.e. perceived relations between one's own and other social groups) and socio-cognitive development (i.e. the emergence of social-cognitive abilities) affects school children's reactions to non-conformists in their peer group.

pdf

Cameron, L. and Rutland, A. and Brown, R.J. et al. (2006) Changing childrens intergroup attitudes towards refugees: Testing different models of extended contact. Child Development, 77 (5). pp. 1208-1219.

Cameron, L. and Rutland, A. (2006) Extended contact through story reading in school: Reducing childrens prejudice towards the disabled. Journal of Social Issues, 62 (3). pp. 469-488. ISSN 0022-4537.

Abstract

The aim of this study was to develop and assess a prejudice-reduction intervention for young children based on a relatively recent psychological concept, extended contact. A number of extended contact interventions were tested based on different models of generalized intergroup contact. A 3 (type of extended contact: neutral, decategorization, and "intergroup") x 2 (time of interview: pre- vs. post-extended contacts) mixed design was used, with the latter variable being within participants. Non-disabled children (N = 67) aged 5-10 years took part in a 6-week intervention involving reading stories featuring disabled and non-disabled children in friendship contexts. The main dependent variables were children's attitudes and intended behavior toward non-disabled and disabled people. Results showed that extended contact led to increased positivity toward the disabled, and this was most pronounced in the intergroup-extended contact condition. These findings suggest that extended contact can provide a prejudice-reduction intervention tool that can be used with young children in contexts in which the opportunity for direct contact is low. The findings also add to the psychological literature, providing support of the Hewstone and Brown (1986) "intergroup" model in the context of extended contact.

pdf

Rutland, A. and Cameron, L. and Bennett, L. et al. (2005) Interracial contact and racial constancy: A multi-site study of racial intergroup bias in 3-5 year old Anglo-British children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 26 (6). pp. 699-713. ISSN 0193-3973.

pdf

Rutland, A. and Cameron, L. and Milne, A. et al. (2005) Social norms and self-presentation: Childrens implicit and explicit intergroup attitudes. Child Development, 76 (2). pp. 451-466. ISSN 0009-3920.

Abstract

Two studies examined whether social norms and childrens concern for self-presentation affects their intergroup attitudes. Study 1 examined racial intergroup attitudes and normative beliefs among children aged 6-16 years (n = 155). Accountability (i.e. public self-focus) was experimentally manipulated, and intergroup attitudes assessed using explicit and implicit measures. Study 2 (n = 134) replicated Study 1, focusing on national intergroup attitudes. Both studies showed that children below 10 years were externally motivated to inhibit their in-group bias under high public self-focus. Older children were internally motivated to suppress their bias since they showed implicit but not explicit bias. Study 1, in contrast to Study 2, showed that children with low norm internalization suppressed their out-group prejudice under high public self-focus.

pdf

Abrams, D. and Rutland, A. and Cameron, L. (2003) The development of subjective group dynamics: Childrens judgments of normative and deviant in-group and out-group individuals. Child Development, 74 (6). pp. 1840-1856. ISSN 0009-3920.

Abstract

Abstract: A developmental model of subjective group dynamics suggests that social identity is sustained first by intergroup biases and later by intragroup biases. In this study 476 English children 5 to 11 years old evaluated the English and German soccer teams, and judged in-group or out-group members whose attitudes toward the teams was normative versus antinormative. Children of all ages expressed intergroup bias. Differential evaluation against in-group deviants and in favor of out-group deviants strengthened with age. Understanding of targets' relative acceptability (differential inclusion) among in-group and out-group members mediated the effects of age and intergroup bias on intragroup bias. Identification with the in-group moderated the effects only among older children.

Abrams, D. and Rutland, A. and Cameron, L. et al. (2003) The development of subjective group dynamics: When ingroup bias gets specific. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 21 (2). pp. 155-176. ISSN 0261-510X.

Abstract

Children aged 6-7 years and 10-11 years evaluated an in-group or out-group summer school and judged in-group or out-group members whose attitudes towards the summer schools were either normative or anti-normative. According to a subjective group dynamics model of intergroup processes, intergroup differentiation and intragroup differentiation co-occur to bolster the validity of in-group norms. The hypothesis that this process develops later than simple in-group bias was confirmed. All children expressed global in-group bias, but differential reactions to in-group and out-group deviants were stronger among older children. Moreover, the increasing relationship, with age, between in-group bias and evaluative preferences for in-group and out-group members that provide relative support to in-group norms, is mediated by the degree of perceptual differentiation among group members

Book Sections

Cameron, L. and Turner, R.N. (2010) The applications of diversity-based interventions to reduce prejudice. In: Crisp, R.J. The Psychology of Social and Cultural Diversity. Social issues and interventions. Blackwell, pp. 322-352. ISBN 9781405195621.

Cameron, L. and Rutland, A. (2008) Comparing theoretical models of prejudice reduction among different age groups. In: Levy, S.R. and Killen, M. Intergroup Attitudes and Relations in Childhood Through Adulthood: An Integrative Developmental and Social Psychological Perspective. Studies in Crime and Public Policy. Oxford University Press Inc, USA, United States. ISBN 9780195189742.

Total publications in KAR: 18 [See all in KAR]

Information obtained from the Kent Academic Repository. The University of Kent official repository of academic activity.

More information about the Kent Academic Repository

Grants

March-June 2010	Cameron, L. Kent County Council (via World Education Development Group) Making friends	£1,550
2009-11	World Education Development Group & Cameron, L. Department for International Development "My Dad says..."	£17,619
2009-	Cameron, L. University of Kent Faculty of Social Sciences Evaluating an "imaginary inter-group contact" intervention in nurseries in Sandwell	£1,000
September 2008 - June 2011	Race Equality Sandwell & Cameron, L. Big Lottery Research Programme Tackling racism amongst adolescents: A route to greater well-being and cohesion	£250,000
2008-09	Cameron, L. & Stathi, S. British Academy Imaginary contact: Developing and evaluating a new prejudice-reduction intervention for schools	£7,026
2008-09	Race Equality Sandwell & Cameron, L. Harborne Parish Lands Tackling attitudes in Early Years	£3,550
2008	Cameron, L. & Stathi, S. University of Kent Faculty of Social Sciences Imaginary intergroup contact in children	£1,000
2007-09	World Education Development Group & Cameron, L. (researcher) Big Lottery Fund Attitude is everything	£31,161
2006-07	Cameron, L., Rutland, A., & Hossain, R. British Academy Changing children’s attitudes towards stigmatized groups: Testing different models of Extended Contact	£7,500
2005-07	Rutland, A., Brown, R. J., & Cameron, L. Economic and Social Research Council Evaluating interventions to reduce children’s prejudice towards immigrants	£42,000
2005-07	Cameron, L. & Turner, R. Race Equality Sandwell Helping dual heritage children reach their potential: Possible difficulties and defences against them	£3,000
2004	Rutland A. & Cameron, L. British Broadcasting Corporation Intergroup contact and ethnic identity: A national study of 4-5 year old children	£3,500

Research reports

Extended contact in childhood

This research project was concerned with promoting positive attitudes towards stigmatized groups (the disabled and refugees) through a relatively new concept in social psychology, extended contact. We designed a school-based intervention in which children read stories that featured friendships between in- and out-group children. We evaluated the technique to see what effect it had on children's attitudes. The findings were published in academic journals, but here you can find various reports and presentations of findings designed for a wider audience.

Well-being, identity and peer relations among children in Kent & Sussex

This research project was conducted in 2005-2008 and was funded by the Economic and Social Research Council. We wanted to build up a picture of the lives of children living in Kent & Sussex.

We focused on children aged 5-11 years.

We wanted to know: Do children feel that they fit in at school? Do they feel that
they are accepted by their peers? Are they able to interact with their peers?
Generally, how good is their behaviour? Do they have high self-esteem?
We also wanted to study how children relate to and understand their national
and ethnic group. We included British Asian and white British children.
We wanted to know: Do British Asian and white British children feel attached to
their ethnic and national groups? Is it important to them? What do they think
about Asian British people maintaining their customs in the UK? Do they think
that interactions between children and families from different ethnic groups are a
good thing?
Furthermore, have children experienced any bullying because of their ethnicity?
Furthermore, how much do all these attitudes, behaviours and experiences change
with age, gender, ethnicity and social context (ethnic diversity of school)?

ESRC poster of findings for schools 2005-08 I (PDF)
ESRC poster of findings for schools 2005-08 II (PDF)
ESRC report for schools 2005-08 (PDF)

How can we help dual heritage young people reach their potential?

This project was funded by Race Equality Sandwell, and examined the particular challenges facing young people of Dual Heritage. The aim of the project was to identify those challenges and factors that helped young people overcome these difficulties.

Helping dual heritage children reach their potential (PDF)

Attitude is everything

This project was conducted with WEDG (World Education Development Group) and was funded by Oxfam. We introduced educational techniques in early years settings to promote positive attitudes towards diversity. This 3 year project was highly successful and provided some of the first evidence for the effectiveness of Persona Dolls in promoting positive attitudes towards diversity and difference.

Attitude is everything (PDF)
Attitude is everything project information (PDF)

Making friends

This research project was funded by the Local Education Authority in Kent and was conducted in conjunction with WEDG. We introduced our new technique called 'Storytelling with a Difference', which draws on children's imaginations to promote positive attitudes towards difference.

Making friends report (PDF)

Tackling racism

This large-scale project is funded by the Lottery and is conducted in partnership with Race Equality Sandwell. The project is ongoing, and we are currently analysing data closely. Below is a leaflet outlining the project in greater detail.