Cases of non-consensual voyeurism are on the rise in the UK. For victim-survivors, the psychological trauma of being watched without consent can result in emotional scars that persist long after the incident has ended. Yet, unlike other sexual offences, it’s relatively unexplored in forensic psychology. It’s why Dr Vicky Lister, a Post-Doctoral Research Fellow in the School of Psychology, chose to dedicate her PhD to better understanding why people engage in this behaviour with the aim of reversing the trend.
What might we consider voyeurism – and is it always an offence?
Defining voyeurism can be a little bit tricky. It is broadly defined as watching another person or people who are ‘unsuspecting’ during private activities such as using the bathroom, showering, or engaging in sexual activities. This also includes upskirting, defined as taking an image underneath someone’s clothing. Within forensic psychology, these actions become a concern when the people viewed are non-consenting.
Voyeurism is considered an offence under the Sexual Offences Act 2003 when the victim is non-consenting and the perpetrator has engaged in the behaviour with the goal of causing the victim distress or for their own sexual gratification. However, my research suggests that not all individuals who engage in voyeurism are motivated by either victim distress or sexual gratification. Instead, my research demonstrates three main motivations for voyeurism. The first is sexual gratification – but not in the way you might think. Individuals were motivated by the thrill of the risk of being caught, with only some individuals experiencing sexual gratification after this. The second motivation was maladaptive connection seeking. For these individuals, voyeurism was a means to feel emotionally connected to someone and was usually at a time when individuals felt lonely or were struggling with their mental health. The final motivation was around wishing to have a ‘relationship’ with someone they knew they couldn’t have a relationship with. For example, a married neighbour, a step-sibling, or a step-child.
Due to its nature, it is expected that a large proportion of individuals engaging in voyeurism are either not caught or not reported, although we can see from the Ministry of Justice statistics that the number of reported instances is on the rise.
Why are cases of voyeurism against women on the rise?
It is difficult to determine why cases are rising. But what we do know is that women are not the only people affected by this sexual offence. One of the studies I conducted as part of my PhD and published in 2023 with Professor Theresa Gannon highlighted that victims of voyeurism include both men, women, and non-binary people and also include a variety of ages from the elderly through to children. So, voyeurism is a crime that does not affect just one age or gender.
Some suggest that voyeurism is on the rise due to the increase in technology and the accessibility of miniature cameras. We are unable to identify whether or not this is the case since it may be that offences are just being reported more often. But what we do know from work by Professor Claire McGlynn and colleagues is that the effects of voyeurism on victim-survivors can be life-shattering, with many experiencing feelings of helplessness, shame and anxiety, mental health issues and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
What motivated you to explore this area of forensic psychology?
This area of forensic psychology has been vastly unresearched. There were a few papers published in the 80s and 90s on voyeurism, but very little has been done since. In fact, practitioners have been calling out for research in this area for nearly a decade, stating that the current state of literature for informing risk assessment and treatment is dangerous. I was motivated to explore this area to understand this sexual offence so we can begin prevention efforts to reduce these behaviours as well as support victim-survivors.
How might research help us reduce voyeuristic behaviour in society?
Research in this area is needed so that we can understand why people engage in voyeurism. This is the first stage to being able to treat individuals and reduce the risk of them reoffending in the future. It can also help us understand what could be done to prevent individuals engaging in the behaviour in the first place. Importantly, research will also be able to tell us of the harm of this behaviour and what is needed to support victim-survivors to report the offence and the effects of the voyeurism.
Where would you like to take your research next?
I am passionate about spending the rest of my career trying to reduce the number of victims of not only voyeurism but all forms of sexual harm. One of the big unanswered questions right now is whether voyeurism is a gateway offence and could lead to a contact offence. It is really important to understand this to gather whether this is an offence in isolation or pathway to greater harm. I would also like to speak to more victim-survivors of voyeurism to really understand what they need and where they feel they could have used more support.
Dr Vicky Lister’s expertise has been featured in the Guardian and was referenced in their Today in Focus podcast which explored the rise of secret cameras.