School of Psychology

Experience Excellence Studying People


Dr Joachim Stoeber

Reader in Psychology and Head of School

Joachim Stoeber

 

Research interests

With a background in research on personality and individual differences on the one hand and research on anxiety, stress and coping on the other, my current research interests centre on perfectionism. In particular, I am interested in the differentiation of positive and negative aspects of perfectionism and how they relate to motivation and emotion, psychosocial wellbeing and performance at school, at work and in sport and exercise. As striving for perfection can be quite stressful, I am interested in how some perfectionists cope with the fact that life is seldom perfect (and neither are they) so that they can enjoy their strivings and maintain a high satisfaction with life despite these imperfections—while other perfectionists despair. Moreover, I am looking into cross-cultural differences between the UK, Japan and China regarding perfectionism. Further interests include how perfectionism relates to goal setting, stress in the workplace, and health behaviours and how different parental rearing styles may influence the development of healthy and unhealthy forms of perfectionism.

I would welcome contact from potential doctoral students interested in these or related topics.


Key Publications

Stoeber, J., & Childs, J. H. (2010). The assessment of self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism: Subscales make a difference. Journal of Personality Assessment, 92, 577-585.

Stoeber, J., & Eysenck, M. W. (2008). Perfectionism and efficiency: Accuracy, response bias, and invested time in proof-reading performance. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 1673-1678.

Stoeber, J., Uphill, M. A., & Hotham, S. (2009). Predicting race performance in triathlon: The role of perfectionism, achievement goals, and personal goal setting. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 31, 211-245.

Stoeber, J., & Yang, H. (2010). Perfectionism and emotional reactions to perfect and flawed achievements: Satisfaction and pride only when perfect. Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 246-251.

 

Also view these in the Kent Academic Repository
Articles

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    Yang, Hongfei and Stoeber, J. (2012) The Physical Appearance Perfectionism Scale: Development and preliminary validation. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment. ISSN 0882-2689. (in press)

    Abstract

    Eight studies with data from 2316 students are presented describing the development and preliminary validation of the Physical Appearance Perfectionism Scale (PAPS), a brief measure with two subscales: Worry About Imperfection and Hope For Perfection. Results from exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the measure’s two-dimensional structure. Moreover, correlation analyses provided first evidence for the two subscales’ differential validity: Worry About Imperfection showed negative correlations with positive self-perceptions of one’s appearance (e.g., appearance self-esteem) and positive correlations with maladaptive concerns aspects of perfectionism, physical appearance concerns (e.g., body image disturbances), and body weight control whereas Hope For Perfection showed positive correlations with positive striving aspects of perfectionism, positive self-perceptions, and impression management. In addition, all PAPS scores showed high reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) and temporal stability (test-retest). Overall the findings suggest that the PAPS is a reliable and valid instrument to assess positive and negative aspects of physical appearance perfectionism.

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    Stoeber, J. and Kobori, Osamu and Tanno, Yoshihiko (2012) Perfectionism and self-conscious emotions in British and Japanese students: Predicting pride and embarrassment after success and failure. European Journal of Personality. ISSN 0890-2070. (in press)

    Abstract

    Regarding self-conscious emotions, studies have shown that different forms of perfectionism show different relationships with pride, shame, and embarrassment depending on success and failure. What is unknown is whether these relationships also show cultural variations. Therefore, we conducted a study investigating how self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism predicted pride and embarrassment after success and failure comparing 363 British and 352 Japanese students. Students were asked to respond to a set of scenarios where they imagined achieving either perfect (success) or flawed results (failure). In both British and Japanese students, self-oriented perfectionism positively predicted pride after success and embarrassment after failure whereas socially prescribed perfectionism predicted embarrassment after success and failure. Moreover, in Japanese students, socially prescribed perfectionism positively predicted pride after success and self-oriented perfectionism negatively predicted pride after failure. The findings have implications for our understanding of perfectionism indicating that the perfectionism–pride relationship not only varies between perfectionism dimensions, but may also show cultural variations.

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    Stoeber, J. (2012) Dyadic perfectionism in romantic relationships: Predicting relationship satisfaction and longterm commitment. Personality and Individual Differences. ISSN 0191-8869. (in press)

    Abstract

    Perfectionism affects all areas of life, including romantic relationships. However, little is known about how dyadic perfectionism (perfectionism in dyadic relationships) affects students’ romantic relationships. Focusing on two central aspects of dyadic perfectionism—partner-oriented perfectionism (perfectionistic expectations towards one’s partner) and partner-prescribed perfectionism (perceived perfectionistic expectations from one’s partner)—this study examined partner and actor effects of dyadic perfectionism in 58 university students and their partners (N = 116 participants) using multilevel analyses. Results showed significant partner and actor effects. Participants’ partner-oriented perfectionism had a positive effect on their partner’s partner-prescribed perfectionism and a negative effect on their own relationship satisfaction and longterm commitment. Participants’ partner-prescribed perfectionism also had a negative effect on their own relationship satisfaction. The findings show that dyadic perfectionism in students’ romantic relationships puts pressure on the partner and negatively affects the perception of the quality of the relationship regarding satisfaction and longterm commitment.

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    Stoeber, J. (2012) The 2 x 2 model of perfectionism: A critical comment and some suggestions. Personality and Individual Differences. ISSN 0191-8869. (in press)

    Abstract

    The 2 x 2 model of perfectionism (Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010) is an important, timely, and welcome addition to the debate on the adaptiveness versus maladaptiveness of perfectionism. Research has long differentiated two dimensions of perfectionism ? evaluative concerns perfectionism (ECP) and personal standards perfectionism (PSP) ? but the 2 x 2 model opens new perspectives hypothesizing that pure ECP (the combination of high ECP and low PSP) is more maladaptive than mixed perfectionism (high ECP, high PSP). With this, the model challenges the tripartite model of perfectionism (e.g., Rice & Ashby, 2007) which does not differentiate between pure ECP and non-perfectionism (low ECP, low PSP). However, the 2 x 2 model has some aspects I regard as problematic. First, it is not parsimonious comprising unnecessary and contradictory hypotheses. Second, it encourages the interpretation of statistically nonsignificant results. Third, it makes suggestions about “distinct subtypes” of perfectionism that are confusing because all the model’s hypotheses can be tested with moderated regression analysis (Gaudreau, 2012). This comment makes some suggestions on how to address these aspects so future research can make the best use of the 2 x 2 model’s hypotheses to further advance our understanding of the adaptiveness and maladaptiveness of perfectionism.

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    Stoeber, J. (2011) The dual nature of perfectionism in sports: Relationships with emotion, motivation, and performance. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 4 (2). pp. 128-145. ISSN 1750-9858.

    Abstract

    Perfectionism is a prevalent characteristic in athletes. Yet some researchers have argued that perfectionism in sports is maladaptive because it undermines athletes’ performance and stifles athletic development. This argument, however, neglects that perfectionism is a multidimensional characteristic and that only some dimensions of perfectionism are clearly maladaptive, whereas others are not. This review argues that perfectionism is comprised of two main dimensions?perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns (Stoeber & Otto, 2006)?that show different and unique pattern of relationships with athletes’ emotion, motivation, and performance. In support of this argument the review will present findings indicating that only perfectionistic concerns show unique positive relationships with competitive anxiety, fear of failure, and avoidance goal orientations. In contrast, perfectionistic strivings show unique positive relationships with self-confidence, hope of success, approach goal orientations, and performance in training and competitions. The findings suggest that only perfectionistic concerns are clearly maladaptive, whereas perfectionistic strivings may form part of a healthy striving for excellence. Implications for applied sport psychology are discussed as are open questions for future research.

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    Stoeber, J. (2011) Perfectionism, efficiency, and response bias in proof-reading performance: Extension and replication. Personality and Individual Differences, 50 (3). pp. 426-429. ISSN 0191-8869.

    Abstract

    In an investigation of perfectionism and proof-reading performance differentiating between perfectionist strivings and perfectionist concerns, Stoeber and Eysenck (2008) found that only perfectionist strivings (but not perfectionist concerns) showed significant correlations with proof-reading performance: a negative correlation with efficiency (accuracy divided by time invested in the task) and a positive correlation with false alarms (incorrectly detected errors). The aim of the present study was to expand on Stoeber and Eysenck’s study investigating 156 students using different measures of perfectionism and a different text for proof-reading. Results replicated Stoeber and Eysenck’s main findings: Perfectionist strivings showed a negative correlation with efficiency and a positive correlation with false alarms. In addition, they showed a positive correlation with invested time and a negative correlation with response bias against reporting errors. In contrast, perfectionist concerns did not show any significant correlations with proof-reading performance. The findings corroborate the association between perfectionist strivings and reduced efficiency. Moreover, they further confirm the importance of (a) differentiating perfectionist strivings and perfectionist concerns, (b) using signal detection analysis, and (c) considering both absolute performance and relative performance (efficiency) when investigating the relationships of perfectionism with performance.

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    Stoeber, J. and Janssen, Dirk P. (2011) Perfectionism and coping with daily failures: Positive reframing helps achieve satisfaction at the end of the day. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 24 (5). pp. 477-497. ISSN 1061-5806.

    Abstract

    Differentiating perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns, the present study examined how perfectionism predicts what coping strategies people use when dealing with failures, and how perfectionism and coping influence people’s satisfaction. A sample of 149 students completed daily reports for 3 to 14 days reporting the most bothersome failure they experienced during the day, what strategies they used to cope with the failure, and how satisfied they felt at the end of the day. Multilevel regression analyses showed that perfectionistic concerns predicted more frequent use of self-blame, less frequent use of active coping and acceptance, and higher satisfaction at the end of the day whereas perfectionistic strivings predicted less frequent use of self-blame and higher satisfaction. Whereas positive reframing, acceptance, and humor predicted higher satisfaction for all students, further analyses showed that positive reframing coping was particularly helpful for students high in perfectionistic concern. The findings suggest that accommodative coping strategies are generally helpful in dealing with personal failures, with positive reframing being a coping strategy that works particularly well for people high in perfectionistic concerns (who are prone to dissatisfaction) to achieve higher satisfaction at the end of the day.

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    Stoeber, J. and Harvey, Matt and Ward, Joshua A. et al. (2011) Passion, craving, and affect in online gaming: Predicting how gamers feel when playing and when prevented from playing. Personality and Individual Differences, 58 (8). pp. 991-995. ISSN 0191-8869.

    Abstract

    According to the Dualistic Model of Passion, two forms of passion can motivate a behavior: harmonious passion and obsessive passion. Across various life activities, studies have found that the two forms of passion show different relationships with affect, linking harmonious passion to positive affect and obsessive passion to negative affect. To investigate if this pattern also holds for online gaming, the present study investigated 160 gamers involved in playing massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMOs) and examined positive and negative affect (a) when playing and (b) when prevented from playing. In addition, the effects of general affect and craving for playing MMOs were controlled for. Results were as expected from the Dualistic Model of Passion: Harmonious passion for online gaming predicted positive affect when playing whereas obsessive passion predicted negative affect when playing and when prevented from playing. Moreover, these effects remained unchanged when general affect and craving were controlled for. With this, the present research shows that individual differences in passion for online gaming explain unique variance in gaming-related emotions. Moreover, the present findings suggests that craving is a variable that future research on positive and negative affect in online gaming should pay closer attention to.

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    Stoeber, J. and Childs, Julian H. and Hayward, Jennifer A. et al. (2011) Passion and motivation for studying: Predicting academic engagement and burnout in university students. Educational Psychology, 31 (4). pp. 513-528. ISSN 0144-3410.

    Abstract

    Research on the dualistic model of passion (Vallerand et al., 2003) has investigated harmonious and obsessive passion in many domains. However, few studies have investigated passion for studying and the role passion for studying plays in student engagement and well-being. The present study investigated the relationships between harmonious and obsessive passion for studying and academic engagement (vigor, dedication, and absorption) and burnout (exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy) in 105 university students, controlling for the effects of autonomous and controlled motivation. Both harmonious and obsessive passion explained variance in academic engagement and burnout beyond autonomous and controlled motivation: harmonious passion predicted higher dedication and lower cynicism, obsessive passion predicted higher absorption, and both harmonious and obsessive passion predicted higher vigor and lower inefficacy. The findings suggest that passion for studying explains individual differences in students’ academic engagement and burnout beyond autonomous and controlled motivation and thus deserves more attention from educational psychology.

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    Stoeber, J. and Luszczynska, Aleksandra (2010) Impact factor stories: Anxiety, Stress, & Coping. Editors' Bulletin, 6 (2). pp. 56-60. ISSN 1752-1742.

    Abstract

    Anxiety, Stress, & Coping provides a forum for scientific, theoretically important, and clinically significant research reports and conceptual contributions. It deals with experimental and field studies on anxiety dimensions and stress and coping processes, but also with related topics such as the antecedents and consequences of stress and emotion. Welcome are papers contributing to the understanding of the relationship between psychological and physiological processes, specific for stress and anxiety. The journal’s Impact Factor has increased impressively over the past three Impact Factor years. It moved from 0.588 in the 2007 JCR® to 1.127 the subsequent year, with a further jump to 1.545 in the recently released 2009 JCR®. Below, we ask the editors for their thoughts on these increases.

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    Stoeber, J. and Kobori, Osamu and Tanno, Yoshihiko (2010) The Multidimensional Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory–English (MPCI-E): Reliability, validity, and relationships with positive and negative affect. Journal of Personality Assessment, 92 (1). pp. 16-25. ISSN 0022-3891.

    Abstract

    The Multidimensional Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory (MPCI; Kobori & Tanno, 2004) is a promising new instrument developed in Japan to assess perfectionism cognitions regarding personal standards, pursuit of perfection, and concern over mistakes. The present study examined reliability and validity of the English version of the MPCI, the MPCI-E (Kobori, 2006), in a sample of 371 native English speakers. A confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the MPCI-E’s three-factorial oblique structure. Moreover, correlations with measures of dispositional perfectionism and past-week positive and negative affect provided first evidence of the MPCI-E’s convergent and differential validity. Finally, hierarchical multiple regressions indicated that the MPCI-E showed incremental validity in explaining variance in positive and negative affect above variance explained by dispositional perfectionism. Overall, the findings provide first evidence for the reliability and validity of the MPCI-E as a multidimensional measure of perfectionism cognitions that has the potential to further our understanding of positive and negative cognitions in perfectionism.

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    Stoeber, J. and Chesterman, Daryl and Tarn, Terri-Anne (2010) Perfectionism and task performance: Time on task mediates the perfectionistic strivings–performance relationship. Personality and Individual Differences, 48 (4). pp. 458-462. ISSN 0191-8869.

    Abstract

    Numerous studies have demonstrated that perfectionistic strivings are associated with higher performance. Few studies, however, have investigated how perfectionistic strivings lead to higher performance. The present study investigated whether invested time (time on task) can explain the relationship between perfectionistic strivings and task performance. A sample of 100 university students performed a simple letter-detection task. Afterwards they rated their subjective effort regarding speed and accuracy. Results showed that (a) perfectionistic strivings showed positive correlations with time on task and with task performance and (b) that time on task fully mediated the relationship between perfectionistic strivings and task performance. Regarding subjective effort, students high in perfectionistic strivings indicated that they put more effort in accuracy than in speed compared to students low in perfectionistic strivings. The findings indicate that invested time may explain how perfectionistic strivings lead to higher performance in simple self-paced tasks. Moreover, they indicate that, for people high in perfectionistic strivings, accuracy of task performance is more important than speed.

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    Stoeber, J. and Yang, Hongfei (2010) Perfectionism and Emotional Reactions to Perfect and Flawed Achievements: Satisfaction and Pride Only When Perfect. Personality and Individual Differences, 49 (3). pp. 246-251. ISSN 0191-8869.

    Abstract

    Perfectionists have excessively high standards and thus are prone to experience dissatisfaction and embarrassment. But what if they achieve perfection? The present study investigated in a sample of 194 university students how self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism predicted emotional reactions (satisfaction, dissatisfaction, pride, embarrassment) to imagined situations in which students achieved either perfect or flawed outcomes. Self-oriented perfectionism showed positive correlations with satisfaction and pride after perfect outcomes, and positive correlations with dissatisfaction and embarrassment after flawed outcomes. In contrast, socially prescribed perfectionism showed positive correlations with dissatisfaction after both perfect and flawed outcomes. Moreover, socially prescribed perfectionism moderated the relationship of self-oriented perfectionism with satisfaction and pride after perfect outcomes: Self-oriented perfectionism predicted higher satisfaction and pride only in students with low levels of socially prescribed perfectionism. The findings show that perfectionists high in self-oriented perfectionism, but low in socially prescribed perfectionism may experience more pride and greater satisfaction than nonperfectionists, but only when they achieve perfection.

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    Stoeber, J. and Childs, Julian H. (2010) The assessment of self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism: Subscales make a difference. Journal of Personality Assessment, 92 (6). pp. 577-585. ISSN 0022-3891.

    Abstract

    Campbell and Di Paula (2002) suggested differentiating Perfectionistic Striving and Importance of Being Perfect subscales when measuring self-oriented perfectionism, and Others’ High Standards and Conditional Acceptance subscales when measuring socially prescribed perfectionism. The present study investigates the utility of this differentiation by analyzing data from 1041 students and examining correlations with positive striving and maladaptive evaluation concerns aspects of perfectionism and with positive and negative indicators of well-being and psychological adjustment. As expected, (a) Perfectionistic Striving scores showed higher correlations with positive striving aspects of perfectionism and with positive indicators of well-being and adjustment than Importance of Being Perfect scores, and (b) Conditional Acceptance scores showed higher correlations with maladaptive evaluation concerns aspects of perfectionism and with negative indicators of well-being and adjustment than Others’ High Standards scores. The findings indicate that Campbell and Di Paula’s differentiation provides for a more detailed and informative assessment of multidimensional perfectionism and its different aspects. Moreover, it provides for new insights into self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism and their relationships and associations.

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    Childs, Julian H. and Stoeber, J. (2010) Self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism in employees: Relationships with burnout and engagement. Journal of Workplace Behavioral Health, 25 (4). pp. 269-281. ISSN 1555-5240.

    Abstract

    Burnout and engagement impact employees, organizations, and customers in numerous positive and negative ways. Consequently, it is important to know how individual differences contribute to employees‘ burnout and engagement. The present study examined how individual differences in self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism were associated with burnout and engagement in a sample of 106 employees. Results of correlation and regression analyses showed that perfectionism explained variance in all facets of burnout (exhaustion, cynicism, reduced efficacy) and engagement (vigor, dedication, absorption). Whereas socially prescribed perfectionism was associated with higher levels of burnout and lower levels of engagement, self-oriented and other-oriented perfectionism were associated with lower levels of burnout and higher levels of engagement. The findings indicate that individual differences in perfectionism may be a contributing factor to burnout and engagement in the workplace.

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    Stoeber, J. and Crombie, Rosanna (2010) Achievement goals and championship performance: Predicting absolute performance and qualification success. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11 (6). pp. 513-521. ISSN 1469-0292.

    Abstract

    Objectives: Research on athletes’ achievement goals has suggested that the contrast between performance approach and performance avoidance goals (performance approach-avoidance contrast) is a significant predictor of sports performance. However, so far only two studies investigating triathletes found that performance approach-avoidance contrast predicted sports performance in competitions. The present study aims to replicate and expand on these findings with a diverse sample of track and field athletes. Design: The study used a prospective correlational design controlling for athletes’ previous performance (personal best). Method: A sample of 161 track and field athletes competing at the 2008 Outdoor Athletic Championships of the British Universities Sports Association completed questionnaires indicating their personal best and their achievement goals before competing in the championships. Two measures of championship performance (absolute performance, qualification success) were obtained from the official records. Results: Results showed that the performance approach-avoidance contrast in athletes’ achievement goals predicted absolute performance and qualification success in the championships beyond what was predicted from athletes’ personal best. Conclusions: The findings corroborate previous findings that, when athletes pursue performance goals, the relative strength of athletes’ motivational orientation (approach vs. avoidance) is critical for performance and competitive success.

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    Sagar, S.S. and Stoeber, J. (2009) Perfectionism, fear of failure, and affective responses to success and failure: The central role of fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 31 (5). pp. 602-627. ISSN 0895-2779.

    Abstract

    This study investigated how different aspects of perfectionism in athletes (N = 388) related to the different fears of failure proposed by Conroy et al. (2002), and how perfectionism and fears of failure predicted positive and negative affect after imagined success and failure in sports competitions. Results showed that perfectionistic personal standards showed a negative relationship with fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment and a positive relationship with positive affect after success, whereas perfectionistic concern over mistakes and perceived parental pressure showed a positive relationship with fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment and with negative affect after failure. Moreover, fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment fully mediated the relationship between perfectionistic concern and negative affect and between coach pressure and negative affect. The findings demonstrate that fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment is central in the perfectionism-fear of failure relationship and that perfectionistic concern about mistakes and perceived coach pressure are aspects of perfectionism that predict fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment and negative affect after failure.

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    Stoeber, J. and Stoll, O. and Salmi, O. et al. (2009) Perfectionism and achievement goals in young Finnish ice-hockey players aspiring to make the Under-16 national team. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27 (1). pp. 85-94. ISSN 0264-0414.

    Abstract

    Research on perfectionism suggests that is it useful to differentiate between perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. Regarding the 2 x 2 achievement goal framework, the usefulness of this differentiation was recently demonstrated in a study with university student athletes (Stoeber, Stoll, Pescheck, & Otto, 2008, Study 2), in which it was found that perfectionistic strivings were associated with mastery-approach and performance-approach goals and perfectionistic concerns with mastery-avoidance, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance goals. Because the study was largely exploratory and only used non-elite athletes, the aim of the present research was to replicate and extend these findings by investigating a sample of 138 young, elite ice-hockey players, while adding further measures of perfectionism and using structural equation modelling (SEM) to confirm the relationships between perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns,and the 2 x 2 achievement goals. The SEM results showed that, in elite athletes also, perfectionistic strivings are associated with mastery-approach and performance-approach goals, whereas perfectionistic concerns are associated with masteryavoidance, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance goals. Our findings corroborate the importance of differentiating between perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns when studying perfectionism in sports, because only perfectionistic concerns (and not perfectionistic strivings) are associated with maladaptive patterns of achievement goals.

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    Stoeber, J. and Uphill, M.A. and Hotham, S. (2009) Predicting race performance in triathlon: The role of perfectionism, achievement goals, and personal goal setting. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 31 (2). pp. 211-245. ISSN 0895-2779.

    Abstract

    The question of how perfectionism affects performance is highly debated. Because empirical studies examining perfectionism and competitive sport performance are missing, the present research investigated how perfectionism affected race performance and what role athletes’ goals played in this relationship in two prospective studies with competitive triathletes (Study 1: N = 112; Study 2: N = 321). Regression analyses showed that perfectionistic personal standards, high performance-approach goals, low performance-avoidance goals, and high personal goals predicted race performance beyond athletes’ performance level. Moreover, the contrast between performance-avoidance and performance-approach goals mediated the relationship between perfectionistic personal standards and performance, whereas personal goal setting mediated the relationship between performance-approach goals and performance. The findings indicate that perfectionistic personal standards do not undermine competitive performance, but are associated with goals that help athletes achieve their best possible performance.

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    Stoeber, J. and Otto, K. and Dalbert, C. (2009) Perfectionism and the Big Five: Conscientiousness predicts longitudinal increases in self-oriented perfectionism. Personality and Individual Differences, 47 (4). pp. 363-368. ISSN 0191-8869.

    Abstract

    Findings from cross-sectional studies on the relationship between perfectionism and the Big Five personality traits demonstrate that conscientiousness shows significant positive correlations with self-oriented perfectionism, and neuroticism with socially prescribed perfectionism. The question is whether conscientiousness and neuroticism also predict longitudinal changes in self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism. A sample of 214 adolescents aged 14-19 years completed measures of the Big Five and perfectionism twice over a period of 5 to 8 months. As was expected, conscientiousness predicted longitudinal increases in self-oriented perfectionism. Neuroticism, however, did not predict any longitudinal increases in perfectionism—neither in self-oriented nor in socially prescribed perfectionism. Providing support for McCrae and Costa’s dynamic personality theory (McCrae & Costa, 1999) which holds that broad personality traits play a part in the development of lower-level personality characteristics, the findings suggest that conscientiousness is a trait that plays a role in the development of self-oriented perfectionism.

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    Stoeber, J. and Feast, A.R. and Hayward, J.A. (2009) Self-oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism: Differential relationships with intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and test anxiety. Personality and Individual Differences, 47 (5). pp. 423-428. ISSN 0191-8869.

    Abstract

    Previous studies suggest that self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism show differential relationships with intrinsic–extrinsic motivation and test anxiety, but the findings are ambiguous. Moreover, they ignored that test anxiety is multidimensional. Consequently, the present study re-investigated the relationships in 104 university students examining how the two forms of perfectionism are related to intrinsic–extrinsic motivation and multidimensional test anxiety (worry, emotionality, interference, lack of confidence, and total anxiety). Regarding motivation, self-oriented perfectionism showed positive correlations with intrinsic reasons for studying, and socially prescribed perfectionism positive correlations with extrinsic reasons. Regarding test anxiety, only socially prescribed perfectionism showed positive correlations with total anxiety. Moreover, socially prescribed perfectionism showed positive correlations with interference and lack of confidence, whereas self-oriented perfectionism showed positive correlations with worry, but negative correlations with interference and lack of confidence. The findings confirm that socially prescribed perfectionism is a maladaptive form of perfectionism associated with extrinsic motivation for studying and higher anxiety in exams. Self-oriented perfectionism, however, is an ambivalent form associated with intrinsic motivation for studying and with both higher and lower anxiety (higher worry, lower interference, lower lack of confidence) in exams.

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    Stoeber, J. and Stoeber, F.S. (2009) Domains of perfectionism: Prevalence and relationships with perfectionism, age, gender, and satisfaction with life. Personality and Individual Differences, 46 (4). pp. 530-535. ISSN 0191-8869.

    Abstract

    Perfectionists have been described as people who want to be perfect in all domains of their lives. Few studies to date, however, have investigated what domains people are perfectionistic in. Using two samples (109 university students, 289 Internet users), the present study investigated how being perfectionistic in 22 domains of life was related to perfectionism, age, gender, and satisfaction with life. Across samples, work and studies were the domains that most participants reported being perfectionistic in, followed by bodily hygiene, spelling, and presentation of documents. Whereas age, gender, and satisfaction with life showed significant relationships with selected domains of life, perfectionism showed significant positive correlations with the overall score (number of domains affected by perfectionism) and with being perfectionistic in individual domains. Further analyses showed that self-oriented perfectionism, rather than socially prescribed perfectionism, was responsible for these correlations. The findings indicate that, in most domains, being perfectionistic is internally motivated and not externally motivated. Moreover, they show that, while some perfectionists may be perfectionistic across domains, most perfectionists are perfectionistic only in selected domains.

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    Stoeber, J. and Rennert, D. (2008) Perfectionism in school teachers: Relations with stress appraisal, coping styles,and burnout. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 21 (1). pp. 37-53. ISSN 1061-5806.

    Abstract

    Many school teachers suffer from stress and burnout, and perfectionism is a personality characteristic that has been associated with increased stress, maladaptive coping, and burnout. Recent findings, however, show that perfectionism has both positive and negative facets. To investigate how these facets are related to stress, coping, and burnout in teachers, a sample of 118 secondary school teachers completed multidimensional measures of perfectionism, stress appraisals, coping styles, and burnout. Multiple regression analyses showed that striving for perfection was positively related to challenge appraisals and active coping and inversely to threat/loss appraisals, avoidant coping, and burnout whereas negative reactions to imperfection were positively related to threat/loss appraisals, avoidant coping, and burnout and inversely to challenge appraisals and active coping. Perceived pressure to be perfect showed differential relationships depending on the source of pressure: Whereas pressure from students was positively related to loss appraisals and pressure from students' parents was positively related to burnout, pressure from colleagues was inversely related to threat appraisals and burnout. The findings suggest that striving for perfection and perceived pressure from colleagues do not contribute to stress and burnout in teachers, whereas negative reactions to imperfection and perceived pressure from students and students' parents may be contributing factors.

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    Stoeber, J. and Hutchfield, J. and Wood, K.V. (2008) Perfectionism, self-efficacy, and aspiration level: Differential effects of perfectionistic striving and self-criticism after success and failure. Personality and Individual Differences, 45 (4). pp. 323-327. ISSN 0191-8869.

    Abstract

    Despite over 15 years of research on multidimensional perfectionism, it is still unclear how different forms of perfectionism are related to self-efficacy, aspiration level, and reactions to success and failure in performance situations. Differentiating between positive striving perfectionism and self-critical perfectionism, the present study investigated in N = 100 undergraduate students how perfectionistic striving and self-criticism were related to self-efficacy, aspiration level, and performance and how manipulated success and failure feedback affected these relationships. Results showed that perfectionistic striving was positively correlated with self-efficacy and aspiration level prior to manipulated feedback. Moreover, perfectionistic striving predicted increases in aspiration level following success feedback. In contrast, self-criticism was negatively correlated with self-efficacy prior to feedback and predicted decreases in self-efficacy following failure feedback. The findings corroborate the view that perfectionism has both adaptive and maladaptive aspects: whereas self-criticism is associated with low self-efficacy and makes perfectionists lose confidence after failure, perfectionistic striving is associated with higher aspiration levels and makes perfectionists reach for higher aims after success.

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    Stoeber, J. and Eysenck, Michael W. (2008) Perfectionism and efficiency: Accuracy, response bias, and invested time in proof-reading performance. Journal of Research in Personality, 42 (6). pp. 1673-1678. ISSN 0092-6566.

    Abstract

    Investigating problem-solving performance, Ishida, H. (2005: College students’ perfectionism and task-strategy inefficience: Why their efforts go unrewarded? Japanese Journal of Social Psychology, 20, 208–215) found high levels of perfectionism were associated with lower efficiency. Aiming to replicate and further explore this finding, the present study investigated how two dimensions of perfectionism (high standards, discrepancy between expectations and performance) predicted efficiency in proof-reading performance. N = 96 students completed a proof-reading task involving the detection of spelling, grammar, and format errors. When error-detection performance was subjected to signal detection analysis, high standards correlated positively with the number of incorrectly detected errors (false alarms). Moreover, when task-completion time was taken into account, high standards were negatively correlated with efficiency (accuracy/time). In comparison, discrepancy correlated negatively with the number of correctly detected errors (hits) and positively with a conservative response bias. The findings show that perfectionistic standards are associated with reduced efficiency demonstrating the importance of considering invested time, errors, and response bias when investigating the relationship between perfectionism and performance.

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    Stoll, Oliver and Lau, Andreas and Stoeber, J. (2008) Perfectionism and performance in a new basketball training task: Does striving for perfection enhance or undermine performance? Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9 (5). pp. 620-629. ISSN 1469-0292.

    Abstract

    Objectives: In the psychology of sport and exercise, the question of how perfectionism affects performance is highly debated. While some researchers have identified perfectionism as a hallmark quality of elite athletes, others see perfectionism as a maladaptive characteristic that undermines, rather than helps, athletic performance. Against this background, the purpose of the present study was to investigate how different aspects of perfectionism predict performance and performance increments. Method: A study was conducted with 122 undergraduate athletes to investigate how perfectionism during training affects performance and performance increments in a series of trials with a new basketball training task. Two aspects of perfectionism were examined: striving for perfection and negative reactions to imperfection. Design: The design was a correlational prospective design. Results: Results showed that striving for perfection during training predicted higher performance in the new task. In contrast, negative reactions to imperfection predicted lower performance when athletes attempted the task for the first time, once the positive influence of striving for perfection on task performance was partialled out. However, negative reactions to imperfection did not undermine performance in the consecutive trials. On the contrary, athletes with both high levels of striving for perfection and high levels of negative reactions to imperfection showed the greatest performance increments over the series of trials. Conclusion: The findings suggest that perfectionism is not necessarily a maladaptive characteristic that generally undermines sport performance. Instead, when learning a new training task, perfectionism may enhance performance and lead to performance increments over repeated trials.

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    Stoeber, J. and Stoll, O. and Pescheck, E. et al. (2008) Perfectionism and achievement goals in athletes: Relations with approach and avoidance orientations in mastery and performance goals. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9 (2). pp. 102-121. ISSN 1469-0292.

    Abstract

    Objectives: Challenging views that perfectionism is a maladaptive factor in sport and that it is related to a preoccupation with performance goals and a neglect of mastery goals, the present article argues that perfectionism in athletes is not generally maladaptive, but shows differential relationships with mastery and performance goals depending on which facets of perfectionism are regarded. Method: Going beyond the dichotomous achievement goal framework, two studies with N = 204 high school athletes and N = 147 university student are presented investigating how two facets of perfectionism-striving for perfection and negative reactions to imperfection [Stoeber, J., Otto, K., Pescheck, E., Becker, C., & Stoll, O. (2007). Perfectionism and competitive anxiety in athletes: Differentiating striving for perfection and negative reactions to imperfection. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 959-969.]-relate to athletes' achievement goals. Design: Study 1 employed a cross-sectional correlational design, Study 2 a longitudinal correlational design. Results: Following the trichotomous achievement goal framework, Study 1 found striving for perfection to be positively related to mastery and performance-approach goals, whereas negative reactions to imperfection were positively related to performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals and inversely to mastery goals. Following the 2 x 2 framework, Study 2 found striving for perfection to be positively related to mastery-approach and performance-approach goals whereas negative reactions to imperfection were positively related to mastery-avoidance, performance-approach, and performance avoidance goals. Moreover, negative reactions to imperfection predicted residual increases in mastery avoidance goals over 3 months. Conclusions: It is concluded that striving for perfection in athletes is associated with an adaptive pattern of achievement goals whereas negative reactions to imperfection are associated with a maladaptive pattern. Thus, striving for perfection in sport may be adaptive in athletes who do not experience strong negative reactions when performance is less than perfect.

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    Stoeber, J. and Kempe, T. and Keogh, E.J. (2008) Facets of self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism and feelings of pride, shame, and guilt following success and failure. Personality and Individual Differences, 44 (7). pp. 1506-1516. ISSN 0191-8869.

    Abstract

    According to traditional views of perfectionism, perfectionists are prone to experience shame and guilt and unable to experience pride. However, these views ignore that perfectionism is multidimensional and multifaceted. Consequently, the present study adopted a multidimensional approach and investigated in a sample of N = 67 university students how four facets of perfectionism - perfectionistic striving, importance of being perfect, others' high standards, conditional acceptance - were related to pride, shame, and guilt following experimental manipulation of success and failure. Results showed that perfectionistic striving was associated with more pride following success, whereas all facets were associated with more shame and guilt following failure, particularly conditional acceptance. Furthermore, conditional acceptance was associated with less pride regardless of success or failure. Supporting views of perfectionism that differentiate between adaptive and maladaptive aspects, the findings show that individuals who strive for perfection experience more pride after success. Whereas all facets of perfectionism were related to more shame and guilt after failure, only individuals who think that others' approval is conditional upon being perfect seem to be unable to experience pride. The findings demonstrate that perfectionistic striving per se is not maladaptive, but conditional acceptance may be an important factor in maladaptive and clinical perfectionism.

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    Stoeber, J. and Becker, Claudia (2008) Perfectionism, achievement motives, and attribution of success and failure in female soccer players. International Journal of Psychology, 43 (6). pp. 980-987. ISSN 0020-7594.

    Abstract

    While some researchers have identified adaptive perfectionism as a key characteristic to achieving elite performance in sport, others see perfectionism as a maladaptive characteristic that undermines, rather than helps, athletic performance. Arguing that perfectionism in sport contains both adaptive and maladaptive facets, the present article presents a study of N 5 74 female soccer players investigating how two facets of perfectionism—perfectionistic strivings and negative reactions to imperfection (Stoeber, Otto, Pescheck, Becker, & Stoll, 2007)—are related to achievement motives and attributions of success and failure. Results show that striving for perfection was related to hope of success and self-serving attributions (internal attribution of success). Moreover, once overlap between the two facets of perfectionism was controlled for, striving for perfection was inversely related to fear of failure and self-depreciating attributions (internal attribution of failure). In contrast, negative reactions to imperfection were positively related to fear of failure and self-depreciating attributions (external attribution of success) and inversely related to self-serving attributions (internal attribution of success and external attribution of failure). It is concluded that striving for perfection in sport is associated with an adaptive pattern of positive motivational orientations and self-serving attributions of success and failure, which may help athletic performance. In contrast, negative reactions to imperfection are associated with a maladaptive pattern of negative motivational orientations and self-depreciating attributions, which is likely to undermine athletic performance. Consequently, perfectionism in sport may be adaptive in those athletes who strive for perfection, but can control their negative reactions when performance is less than perfect.

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    Stoeber, J. and Harris, R.A. and Moon, P.S. (2007) Perfectionism and the experience of pride, shame, and guilt: Comparing healthy perfectionists, unhealthy perfectionists, and non-perfectionists. Personality and Individual Differences, 43 (1). pp. 131-141. ISSN 0191-8869.

    Abstract

    According to traditional views, perfectionists are prone to experience shame and guilt and unable to experience pride. Hamachek (1978), however, suggested that this applies only to neurotic perfectionists, whereas normal perfectionists are able to experience pride and are not prone to experience shame and guilt. Following Hamachek's differentiation, the present study investigated 121 undergraduates and compared healthy perfectionists (high perfectionistic strivings, low perfectionistic concerns), unhealthy perfectionists (high perfectionistic strivings, high perfectionistic concerns), and non-perfectionists (low perfectionistic strivings) regarding proneness to shame, guilt, and pride and state shame, guilt, and pride following success and failure. As expected, healthy perfectionists reported more state pride and less state shame and guilt than unhealthy perfectionists and non-perfectionists. Moreover, healthy perfectionists indicated lower proneness to shame than unhealthy perfectionists and non-perfectionists. However, both healthy and unhealthy perfectionists indicated higher proneness to pride and higher proneness to guilt than non-perfectionists. Supporting views of perfectionism that differentiate between positive and negative forms of the construct, the present findings show that individuals, who strive for perfection, but are unconcerned about imperfections, may well experience pride and be prone to feel guilt, but not shame.

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    Stoeber, J. and Kersting, M. (2007) Perfectionism and aptitude test performance: Testees who strive for perfection achieve better test results. Personality and Individual Differences, 42 (6). pp. 1093-1103. ISSN 0191-8869.

    Abstract

    Positive conceptions of perfectionism (Stoeber & Otto, 2006) suggest that perfectionistic strivings may form part of a healthy pursuit of excellence and are associated with higher academic achievement and higher performance in laboratory tasks. To extend such research findings, the present study explores if perfectionistic strivings also predict aptitude test performance, while controlling for conscientious achievement striving. A sample of 111 participants, who completed measures of perfectionistic strivings and conscientious achievement striving, were given a set of aptitude tests comprising reasoning, speed, and work sample tests. Results showed that, while conscientious achievement striving was unrelated to performance in all tests, perfectionistic strivings predicted higher performance in both reasoning tests and work sample tests. Apart from providing further support for the view that perfectionistic strivings are a positive personality characteristic, the findings may also have relevance for applied psychology, as they suggest that testees who strive for perfection may achieve better results in aptitude tests which are routinely used in personnel selection and assessment

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    Stoeber, J. and Otto, K. and Pescheck, E. et al. (2007) Perfectionism and competitive anxiety in athletes: Differentiating striving for perfection and negative reactions to imperfection. Personality and individual differences, 42 (6). pp. 959-969. ISSN 0191-8869.

    Abstract

    Whereas some researchers have argued that perfectionism in sports is maladaptive because it is related to dysfunctional characteristics Such as higher competitive anxiety, the present article argues that striving for perfection is not maladaptive and is unrelated to competitive anxiety. Four samples of athletes (high school athletes, female soccer players, and two samples of university student athletes) completed measures of perfectionism during competitions and competitive anxiety. Across samples, results show that overall perfectionism was associated with higher cognitive and somatic competitive anxiety. However, when striving for perfection and negative reactions to imperfection were differentiated, only the latter were associated with higher anxiety, whereas striving for perfection was unrelated to anxiety. Moreover, once the influence of negative reactions to imperfection was partialled out, striving for perfection was associated with lower anxiety and higher self-confidence. The present findings suggest that striving for perfection in sports is not maladaptive. On the contrary, athletes who strive for perfection and successfully control their negative reactions to imperfection may even experience less anxiety and more self-confidence during competitions.

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    Stoeber, J. and Eismann, U. (2007) Perfectionism in young musicians: Relations with motivation, effort, achievement, and distress. Personality and Individual Differences, 43 (8). pp. 2182-2192. ISSN 0191-8869.

    Abstract

    Many musicians experience anxiety and distress when performing, which has been related to perfectionism. Recent findings, however, show that only some facets of perfectionism are associated with anxiety and distress, whereas other facets are associated with positive characteristics and outcomes such as motivation and achievement. To investigate how different facets of perfectionism are related to motivation, effort, achievement, and distress in musicians, 146 young musicians completed measures of perfectionism (striving for perfection, negative reactions to imperfection, and perceived pressure to be perfect), intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, effort, achievement, and distress. Results showed that striving for perfection was associated with intrinsic motivation (intrinsic/identified reasons), higher effort, and higher achievement. Whereas perceived pressure from music teachers was also associated with intrinsic motivation (identified reasons only), negative reactions to imperfection were associated with extrinsic motivation and higher distress. The findings demonstrate that perfectionism in musicians has both positive and negative sides. While negative reactions to imperfection are clearly unhealthy, striving for perfection may be regarded as a healthy pursuit of excellence.

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    Stoeber, J. and Rambow, A. (2007) Perfectionism in adolescent school students: Relations with motivation, achievement, and well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 42 (7). pp. 1379-1389. ISSN 0191-8869.

    Abstract

    Positive conceptions of perfectionism (Stoeber & Otto, 2006) suggest that striving for perfection is associated with positive characteristics and adaptive outcomes. To investigate whether this also holds for adolescent school students, a sample of 121 ninth-graders completed measures of perfectionism at school (striving for perfection, negative reactions to imperfection), perceived parental pressure to be perfect, motivation, school achievement, and well-being. Results showed that negative reactions to imperfection were related to fear of failure, somatic complaints, and depressive symptoms; and perceived parental pressure was related to somatic complaints. In contrast, striving for perfection was related to hope of success, motivation for school, and school achievement. Moreover, striving for perfection showed a negative correlation with depressive symptoms, once the influence of negative reactions to imperfection was partialled out. The findings show that striving for perfection in adolescent school students is associated with positive characteristics and adaptive outcomes and thus may form part of a healthy pursuit of excellence. Negative reactions to imperfection and perceived parental pressure to be perfect, however, are associated with negative characteristics and maladaptive outcomes and thus may undermine adolescents' motivation and well-being.

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    Dalbert, C. and Stoeber, J. (2006) The personal belief in a just world and domain-specific beliefs about justice at school and in the family: A longitudinal study with adolescents. International Journal of Behavioural Development, 30 (3). pp. 200-207. ISSN 0165-0254.

    Abstract

    This article investigates the relationship between the personal belief in a just world (BJW) and domain-specific beliefs about justice and examines how justice cognitions impact on adolescents' development, particularly on their achievement at school and their subjective well-being. A longitudinal questionnaire study with German adolescents aged 14-19 years was conducted over a period of five to eight months. The pattern of results revealed that evaluations of the school climate and of the family climate as being just were two distinct phenomena, both of which impacted on the personal BJW, which in turn affected the domain-specific beliefs about justice. However, the domain-specific beliefs about justice did not impact on each other directly. Moreover, an evaluation of the family climate (but not of the school climate) as being just reduced depressive symptoms, whereas depressive symptoms did not weaken the evaluation of one's family as being just. The evaluation of the school climate as being just improved the grades received in the next school report, whereas the grades received did not affect the justice evaluation of the school climate. Finally, all relationships persisted when controlling for age and gender. In sum, the pattern of findings supports the notion that justice cognitions impact on development during adolescence.

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    Stoeber, J. and Otto, K. (2006) Positive conceptions of perfectionism: Approaches, evidence, challenges. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10 (4). pp. 295-319. ISSN 1088-8683.

    Abstract

    Almost 30 years ago, Hamachek (1978) suggested that 2 forms of perfectionism be distinguished, a positive form labeled "normal perfectionism" and a negative form labeled "neurotic perfectionism." Focusing on the positive, we present an overview of the different empirical conceptions of the 2 forms of perfectionism and a common framework for the 2 basic approaches: the dimensional approach differentiating 2 dimensions of perfectionism (perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns) and the group-based approach differentiating 2 groups of perfectionists (healthy perfectionists and unhealthy perfectionists). Moreover, we review the evidence demonstrating that (a) perfectionistic strivings are associated with positive characteristics and (b) healthy perfectionists show higher levels of positive characteristics compared to unhealthy perfectionists and nonperfectionists. Although questions on core facets, positive effects, and developmental antecedents of positive forms of perfectionism remain, our findings suggest that self-oriented perfectionistic strivings are positive, if perfectionists are not overly concerned about mistakes and negative evaluations by others.

    Dalbert, C. and Stoeber, J. (2005) The belief in a just world and distress at school. Social Psychology of Education, 8 (2). pp. 123-135. ISSN 1381-2890.

    Abstract

    This article investigates the relationship between the belief in a just world (BJW) and distress at school. On the basis of just world theory, the authors argue that strong student BJW should be associated with low school distress. Two questionnaire studies with German secondary school students attending grades 7–13 are reported. Both studies found strong BJW to be associated with less distress at school, better grades, and the evaluation of grades and teachers as more just. Moreover, the relationship between strong BJW and low school distress persisted when controlled for grades, justice of grades, and teacher justice. This relationship held for all students, independently of their school track, grade level, or gender. Overall, the pattern of results reveals school distress to have a unique association with BJW and school-specific justice cognitions.

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    Stoeber, J. and Pekrun, R. (2004) Advances in test anxiety research. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 17 (3). pp. 205-211. ISSN 1061-5806.

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    Stoeber, J. (2004) Dimensions of test anxiety: Relations to ways of coping with pre-exam anxiety and uncertainty. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 17 (3). pp. 213-226. ISSN 1061-5806.

    Abstract

    Cumulative evidence has shown that four dimensions can be differentiated in the experience of test anxiety: worry, emotionality, interference, and lack of confidence. To investigate whether these dimensions show specific relationships with ways of coping, a study with 162 students (75 male, 87 female) examined how students cope with anxiety and uncertainty in the run-up to important exams. Coping strategies included task orientation and preparation, seeking social support, and avoidance. Results showed that overall test anxiety was related to seeking social support. When dimensions of test anxiety were inspected individually while controlling for interdimensional overlap, however, results showed a specific pattern of relationships: (a) worry was related to task-orientation and preparation and inversely related to cognitive avoidance, (b) emotionality was related to task-orientation and preparation and seeking social support, and (c) interference was related to avoidance and inversely related to task-orientation and preparation, whereas (d) lack of confidence was related to avoidance only. Although some gender differences emerged, the findings indicate that the main components of test anxiety display different relationships with coping. Moreover, they confirm that it is important to differentiate between worry and interference because these dimensions, albeit closely related, may show opposite relationships with ways of coping.

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    Stoeber, J. (2003) Self-Pity: Exploring the Links to Personality, Control Beliefs, and Anger. Journal of Personality, 71 (2). pp. 183-220. ISSN 0022-3506.

    Abstract

    Self-pity is a frequent response to stressful events. So far, however, empirical research has paid only scant attention to this subject. The present article aims at exploring personality characteristics associated with individual differences in feeling sorry for oneself. Two studies with N = 141 and N = 161 university students were conducted, employing multidimensional measures of personality, control beliefs, anger, loneliness, and adult attachment. With respect to personality, results showed strong associations of self-pity with neuroticism, particularly with the depression facet. With respect to control beliefs, individuals high in self-pity showed generalized externality beliefs, seeing themselves as controlled by both chance and powerful others. With respect to anger expression, self-pity was primarily related to anger-in. Strong connections with anger rumination were also found. Furthermore, individuals high in self-pity reported emotional loneliness and ambivalent-worrisome attachments. Finally, in both studies, a strong correlation with gender was found, with women reporting more self-pity reactions to stress than men. Findings are discussed with respect to how they support, extend, and qualify the previous literature on self-pity, and directions for future empirical research are pointed out.

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    Stoeber, J. and Dette, D.E. and Musch, J. (2002) Comparing continuous and dichotomous scoring of the balanced inventory of desirable responding. Journal of Personality Assessment, 78 (2). pp. 370-389. ISSN 0022-3891.

    Abstract

    The Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (BIDR; Paulhus, 1994) is a widely used instrument to measure the 2 components of social desirability: self-deceptive enhancement and impression management. With respect to scoring of the BIDR, Paulhus (1994) authorized 2 methods, namely continuous scoring (all answers on the continuous answer scale are counted) and dichotomous scoring (only extreme answers are counted). In this article, we report 3 studies with student samples, and continuous and dichotomous scoring of BIDR subscales are compared with respect to reliability, convergent validity, sensitivity to instructional variations, and correlations with personality. Across studies, the scores from continuous scoring (continuous scores) showed higher Cronbach's alphas than those from dichotomous scoring (dichotomous scores). Moreover, continuous scores showed higher convergent correlations with other measures of social desirability and more consistent effects with self-presentation instructions (fake-good vs. fake-bad instructions). Finally, continuous self-deceptive enhancement scores showed higher correlations with those traits of the Five-factor model for which substantial correlations were expected (i.e., Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Conscientiousness). Consequently, these findings indicate that continuous scoring may be preferable to dichotomous scoring when assessing socially desirable responding with the BIDR

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    Stoeber, J. and Borkovec, T.D. (2002) Reduced concreteness of worry in generalized anxiety disorder: Findings from a therapy study. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26 (1). pp. 89-96. ISSN 0147-5916.

    Abstract

    A sample of clients diagnosed with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) provided descriptions of the two major problems they worried about and of potential negative consequences associated with these problems, once before and once after they received cognitive-behavioral therapy. When descriptions were rated for concreteness and compared to those of normal controls, results showed that untreated GAD clients provided less concrete descriptions of their major worries relative to controls. After successful therapy, problem descriptions of GAD clients showed the same level of concreteness as those of controls. These findings add further support to the reduced-concreteness theory of worry. Moreover; they; indicate that concretization of worries may play a prominent role in the reduction of pathological worry

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    Dutke, S. and Stoeber, J. (2001) Test anxiety, working memory, and cognitive performance: Supportive effects of sequential demands. Cognition and Emotion, 15 (3). pp. 381-389. ISSN 0269-9931.

    Abstract

    Substantial evidence suggests that test anxiety is associated with poor performance in complex tasks. Based on the differentiation of coordinative and sequential demands on working memory (Mayr & Kliegl, 1993), two studies examined the effects of sequential demands on the relationship between test anxiety and cognitive performance. Both studies found that high sequential demands had beneficial effects on the speed and accuracy of the performance of test-anxious participants. It is suggested that the more frequent memory updates associated with high sequential demands may represent external processing aids that compensate for the restricted memory capacity of individuals with high test anxiety

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    Stoeber, J. and Joormann, J. (2001) A short form of the Worry Domains Questionnaire: Construction and factorial validation. Personality and Individual Differences, 31 (4). pp. 591-598. ISSN 0191-8869.

    Abstract

    The Worry Domains Questionnaire (WDQ) [Tallis, F., Eysenck M.W., & Mathews, (1992). A questionnaire for the measurement of nonpathological worry. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 161–168)] is an instrument widely used to assess the amount of worry across five domains of everyday concern: relationships, lack of confidence, aimless future, work, and financial issues. With 25 items, however, the WDQ is somewhat lengthy. The aim of the present study was therefore to construct a 10-item short form (WDQ-SF). A sample of 1080 university students completed the 25 items of the WDQ. One-half of the sample was used to construct the WDQ-SF by selecting two appropriate items from each of the five WDQ domain subscales. The other half of the sample was used to cross-validate the factorial structure of the WDQ-SF by means of confirmatory factor analysis. Like the WDQ, the WDQ-SF displayed high internal consistency (Cronbach's ALPHA=0.88) and a clear five-factor structure. Moreover, the WDQ-SF showed a near-perfect correlation with the WDQ long form (r=0.97). Thus, the WDQ-SF represents a reliable and economical alternative to the full 25-item scale.

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    Stoeber, J. and Joormann, J. (2001) Worry, procrastination, and perfectionism: Differentiating amount of worry, pathological worry, anxiety, and depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25 (1). pp. 49-60. ISSN 0147-5916.

    Abstract

    This study investigates features that differentiate worry from somatic anxiety and depression. Theoretical models of the worry process suggest that worry is closely related to procrastination. In addition, research on worry and elevated evidence requirements proposes a relationship between worry and perfectionism. Perfectionism, however, is multidimensional in nature. Moreover, previous research has linked procrastination and perfectionism mainly to anxiety and depression. Therefore, the relationship among worry, procrastination, and dimensions of perfectionism was investigated irt a sample of 180 students, controlling for anxiety and depression. Results show that worry had substantial correlations with procrastination and perfectionism, particularly with perfectionist concern over mistakes and doubts. Moreover, worry was related to parental criticism and expectations, but unrelated to excessively high personal standards. instead high-worriers reported to lower standards under stress. Partial correlations indicated that these correlations were specific for amount of worry, thus differentiating amount of worry, pathological worry, anxiety, and depression.

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    Stoeber, J. and Wolfradt, U. (2001) Worry and social desirability: Opposite relationships for socio-political and social-evaluation worries. Personality and Individual Differences, 31 (4). pp. 605-613. ISSN 0191-8869.

    Abstract

    The present article investigates the relationship between social desirability and worry. In particular, it addresses the question of whether socio-political worries (i.e. worries about societal or environmental problems) show a different relationship with social desirability than worries related to one's social-evaluative self-concept (i.e. worries about one's own relationships, future, work, or finances). A sample of 155 students responded to self-report questionnaires on worry and social desirability, first under standard instructions and then under social desirability-provoking instructions (imaginary job-application instructions). As expected, results showed opposite relationships for socio-political and social-evaluation worries. First, socio-political worries showed positive correlations with scores from the social desirability questionnaire, whereas social-evaluation worries showed negative correlations. Second, endorsements of socio-political worries increased under social desirability-provoking instructions, whereas those of social-evaluation worries decreased. However, all correlations between self-reported worry and social-desirability scores were rather small. Moreover, in absolute terms, socio-political worries did not show any greater social-desirability bias than social-evaluation worries. Implications for self-report measures of socio-political worries (e.g. environmental worry, worry about technological risks) and directions for future research are discussed.

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    Stoeber, J. and Esser, K.B. (2001) Test anxiety and metamemory: General preference for external over internal information storage. Personality and Individual Differences, 30 (5). pp. 775-781. ISSN 0191-8869.

    Abstract

    Substantial evidence suggests that test anxiety is associated with poor memory performance. The relationship between test anxiety and metamemory, however, has remained largely unexplored. The present study examines test anxiety and metamemory from the perspective of storage selection in extended memory systems. A sample of 56 university students with scores in the upper or lower thirds of the distribution for the Test Anxiety Inventory were presented with sentences describing everyday tasks under conditions where low and high importance was attached to future remembering. For each sentence, participants indicated whether they would choose internal memory storage (neurophysiological memory) or external storage (external memory aids) to remember the information. Results showed that test-anxious participants displayed a general preference for external over internal storage, independent of the importance attached to remembering. Low estimated success of internal storage emerged as a potential reason for this preference. Implications of these findings for research on test anxiety, metamemory, and storage selection in extended memory systems are discussed.

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    Stoeber, J. (2001) The Social Desirability Scale-17 (SDS-17) Convergent Validity, Discriminant Validity, and Relationship with Age. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 17 (3). pp. 222-232. ISSN 1015-5759.

    Abstract

    Four studies are presented investigating the convergent validity, discriminant validity, and relationship with age of the Social Desirability Scale-17 (SDS-17). As to convergent validity, SDS-17 scores showed correlations between .52 and .85 with other measures of social desirability (Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Lie Scale, Sets of Four Scale, Marlowe-Crowne Scale). Moreover, scores were highly sensitive to social-desirability-provoking instructions (job-application instruction). Finally, with respect to the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding, SDS-17 scores showed a unique correlation with impression management, but not with self-deception. As to discriminant validity, SDS-17 scores showed nonsignificant correlations with neuroticism, extraversion, psychoticism, and openness to experience, whereas there was some overlap with agreeableness and conscientiousness. With respect to relationship with age, the SDS-17 was administered in a sample stratified for age, with age ranging from 18 to 89 years. In all but the oldest age group, the SDS-17 showed substantial correlations with the Marlowe-Crowne Scale. The influence of age (cohort) on mean scores, however, was significantly smaller for the SDS-17 than for the Marlowe-Crowne Scale. In sum, results indicate that the SDS-17 is a reliable and valid measure of social desirability, suitable for adults of 18 to 80 years of age.

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    Stoeber, J. and Muijs, M. (2001) Patterns of situational appraisal in experiences of worry and anxiety. Anxiety Stress and Coping, 14 (4). pp. 367-390. ISSN 1061-5806.

    Abstract

    Three studies investigating differences in people's appraisals of worry and anxiety situations are presented. First, data from a study by Reisenzein & Spielhofer (1994) were reanalyzed. Second, two further studies were conducted to replicate the findings of the reanalysis and to explore whether any additional appraisal dimensions were relevant for a differentiation of worry and anxiety situations. In sum, results showed that appraisals associated with situations in which worry and anxiety were experienced differed on eight appraisal dimensions. Compared to experiences of anxiety, experiences of worry were more often associated with positive self-evaluation, positive social-relationship evaluation, feelings of closeness, and sentiments of importance, and less often associated with feelings of inferiority. Moreover, in worry experiences, focus was often not on the self, but on other persons. Finally, with respect to temporal dimensions, worry situations were less often associated with notions of suddenness and momentariness than anxiety situations. Implications of these findings are discussed with respect to models of emotional appraisal and research on worry and generalized anxiety disorder.

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    Stoeber, J. (2000) Prospective cognitions in anxiety and depression: Replication and methodological extension. Cognition and Emotion, 14 (5). pp. 725-729. ISSN 0269-9931.

    Abstract

    The present study presents a replication and methodological extension of MacLeod, Tata, Kentish, and Jacobsen (1997) with a nonclinical sample, using future-directed imagery to assess prospective cognitions. Results showed that only anxiety (but not depression) was related to enhanced imagery for future negative events. Both anxiety and depression showed significant zero-order correlations with reduced imagery for future positive events. However, when the overlap between anxiety and depression was controlled for, only depression (but not anxiety) showed a unique association with reduced imagery for positive events. Implications of these findings for cognitive models of anxiety and depression are discussed.

Total publications in KAR: 69 [See all in KAR]
Information obtained from the Kent Academic Repository. The University of Kent official repository of academic activity.
More information about the Kent Academic Repository

 

Current Research Students

Julian Childs: Perfectionism, social relations and well-being in the workplace.

Xiaohui (Peter) Guo: The influence of parents, teachers and peers on students' perfectionism, wellbeing and achievement.

2011-2012

D Peluso & J Stoeber 
Knowledge Transfer Partnership and Pfizer UK
Pfizer today and tomorrow: A social science approach to understanding workplace culture

£124,880

2008 - 2010

J Stoeber & H Yang
British Academy
Maladaptive perfectionism and mental health in British and Chinese students

£7,402

2007 - 2008

J Stoeber
ESRC
Perfectionism and performance in competitive athletes

£59,000

2006

J Stoeber
U of Kent Promising Researchers Initiative
Cross-cultural differences in perfectionism and reactions to success and failure

£9,186

2005 - 2006

J Stoeber
British Academy
Strategies of coping with perfectionism and well-being

£7,362

2001 - 2002

J Stoeber, U Reips & A Hahn
Pixelpark AG 
Social desirability in online studies

£3,500

 

Final-year Project Supervision

I am prepared to supervise projects that focus on perfectionism (see my Research Interests) regarding three areas:

  • Perfectionism and performance
  • Perfectionism and motivation
  • Perfectionism and emotion

Editorial Roles

School of Psychology
Keynes College
University of Kent
Canterbury, Kent
CT2 7NP
United Kingdom

Tel. +44 (0)1227 824196 
Fax. +44 (0)1227 827030
Email: Joachim Stoeber

Office: Keynes A1.09

Appointments to be made via George Oatridge (Room A1.08)

 

School of Psychology - Keynes College, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NP

Tel: +44 (0)1227 824775; Fax: +44 (0)1227 827030 or Email the School

Last Updated: 19/12/2011